Smartphone ownership can vary widely by country, even across advanced economies. While around nine-in-ten or more South Koreans, Israelis and Dutch people own smartphones, ownership rates are closer to six-in-ten in other developed nations like Poland, Russia and Greece. In emerging economies, too, smartphone ownership rates vary substantially, from highs of 60% in South Africa and Brazil to just around four-in-ten in Indonesia, Kenya and Nigeria. Among the surveyed countries, ownership is lowest in India, where only 24% report having a smartphone.
Prepared by William G. Kohn, D.D.S.1 Amy S. Collins, M.P.H.1 Jennifer L. Cleveland, D.D.S.1 Jennifer A. Harte, D.D.S.2 Kathy J. Eklund, M.H.P.3 Dolores M. Malvitz, Dr.P.H.1 1Division of Oral Health National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, CDC 2United States Air Force Dental Investigation Service Great Lakes, Illinois 3The Forsyth Institute Boston, Massachusetts
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Studies have demonstrated that skin underneath rings is more heavily colonized than comparable areas of skin on fingers without rings (167--170). In a study of intensive-care nurses, multivariable analysis determined rings were the only substantial risk factor for carriage of gram-negative bacilli and Staphylococcus aureus, and the concentration of organisms correlated with the number of rings worn (170). However, two other studies demonstrated that mean bacterial colony counts on hands after handwashing were similar among persons wearing rings and those not wearing rings (169,171). Whether wearing rings increases the likelihood of transmitting a pathogen is unknown; further studies are needed to establish whether rings result in higher transmission of pathogens in health-care settings. However, rings and decorative nail jewelry can make donning gloves more difficult and cause gloves to tear more readily (142,143). Thus, jewelry should not interfere with glove use (e.g., impair ability to wear the correct-sized glove or alter glove integrity). Personal Protective Equipment PPE is designed to protect the skin and the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth of DHCP from exposure to blood or OPIM. Use of rotary dental and surgical instruments (e.g., handpieces or ultrasonic scalers) and air-water syringes creates a visible spray that contains primarily large-particle droplets of water, saliva, blood, microorganisms, and other debris. This spatter travels only a short distance and settles out quickly, landing on the floor, nearby operatory surfaces, DHCP, or the patient. The spray also might contain certain aerosols (i.e., particles of respirable size,
55.Robert LM, Chamberland ME, Cleveland JL, et al. Investigation of patients of health care workers infected with HIV: the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention database. Ann Intern Med 1995;122:653--7.
81.Shapiro CN, Tokars JI, Chamberland ME, American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Serosurvey Study Committee. Use of the hepatitis-B vaccine and infection with hepatitis B and C among orthopaedic surgeons. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1996;78:1791--800.
104.Gooch BF, Siew C, Cleveland JL, Gruninger SE, Lockwood SA, Joy ED. Occupational blood exposure and HIV infection among oral and maxillofacial surgeons. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1998;85:128--34.
278.Greene WW. Control of sterilization process [Chapter 22]. In: Russell AD, Hugo WB, Ayliffe GA, eds. Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation, and sterilization. Oxford, England: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1992:605--24.
469.World Health Organization. Infection control guidelines for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies: report of a WHO consultation, Geneva, Switzerland, 23--26 March 1999. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2000. Available at -documents/tse/whocdscsraph2003c.html.
Matthew Arduino, Dr.P.H., Elizabeth Bolyard, M.P.H., Denise Cardo, M.D., Joe Carpenter, Linda Chiarello, M.P.H., Lynne Sehulster, Ph.D., Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), Atlanta, Georgia; Miriam J. Alter, Ph.D., Division of Viral Hepatitis, NCID; Larry Schonberger, Ph.D., Ermias Belay, M.D., Division of Viral and Ricketsial Diseases, NCID, Atlanta, Georgia; Susan Y. Chu, Ph.D., National Immunization Program, Atlanta, Georgia; Paul A. Jensen, National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Janice Huy, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Cincinnati, Ohio; Lee Petsonk, NIOSH, Morgantown, West Virginia; Jennifer L. Cleveland, D.D.S., Amy S. Collins, M.P.H., Barbara F. Gooch, D.M.D., William G. Kohn, D.D.S., Dolores M. Malvitz, Dr.P.H., Division of Oral Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Atlanta Georgia.
Susan Runner, D.D.S., Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland; Elise Handelman, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Washington, District of Columbia; Jeffrey Kempter, M.S., David Liem, Ph.D., Michelle Wingfield, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, District of Columbia. 2ff7e9595c
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